Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs) are now central to managing type 2 diabetes and obesity, with growing potential in cardiovascular, kidney, and neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson’s. As their use expands, concerns about ocular safety have emerged. These concerns began with the SUSTAIN-6 trial, which linked semaglutide to

Introduction John M., a 42-year-old man with a 20-year history of diabetes, is on a basal-bolus insulin regimen. He works a demanding desk job and manages his glucose carefully. Despite this, he has a history of occasional nocturnal hypoglycemia. One evening, after an active day and a skipped meal, John experienced a sudden episode of severe hypogl

Introduction Severe hypoglycemia remains a significant concern for individuals with diabetes, particularly when it necessitates intervention by others. While traditional intramuscular glucagon (IMG) is effective, its multi-step preparation, especially under emergency conditions, limits its utility. Nasal glucagon (NG) represents a novel, needle-fre

Introduction Type 2 diabetes is increasingly being diagnosed in youths, necessitating effective treatment strategies to manage the condition. This case study presents a hypothetical patient, Alex, a 15-year-old boy diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, who participated in a clinical trial evaluating the efficacy of once-weekly dulaglutide. The study aime

Introduction Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) is a chronic autoimmune condition characterized by the destruction of pancreatic beta cells, leading to absolute insulin deficiency. Conventional management revolves around lifelong insulin therapy, yet it cannot fully mimic the body's physiological insulin regulation. In this context, pancreatic islet c

Introduction Type 2 diabetes is increasingly prevalent among youths, necessitating effective treatment options. This clinical trial aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of once-weekly dulaglutide, a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist, in improving glycemic control in youths with type 2 diabetes. The study was designed to assess the impac

Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is a chronic autoimmune endocrine disorder characterized by the destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic β cells. This condition results in absolute insulin deficiency and, without exogenous insulin administration, can lead to life-threatening metabolic complications. T1DM typically presents with symptoms of hyper

A 64-year-old male with a long-standing history of type 2 diabetes mellitus presented with mild discomfort and discharge from the second toe of his right foot. Despite his known peripheral neuropathy and recurrent foot ulcers, the patient reported minimal symptoms and was initially managed conservatively. His vascular assessment revealed good perfu

Introduction In heart failure (HF), maladaptive sodium retention contributes significantly to congestion, symptoms, and hospitalization (1). While loop diuretics are the standard of care, they often trigger neurohormonal activation and may lead to resistance over time (1). Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2is), like empagliflozin, hav