Introduction Cushing syndrome (CS) represents a spectrum of disorders characterized by chronic exposure to excess cortisol, often resulting in metabolic, cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, and neuropsychiatric complications. While surgical intervention remains the first-line therapy for most etiologies—particularly pituitary adenomas (Cushing disease

Introduction: Effective management of endogenous Cushing’s syndrome (CS) requires not only accurate diagnosis and treatment but also structured communication and engagement. Given the rarity of CS and the prolonged diagnostic journey, individuals often face uncertainty and frustration. Guidance should therefore be staged, clear, and aligned with th

Introduction: The therapeutic landscape of Cushing’s disease (CD) has undergone a paradigm shift over the past decade. Medical therapy has evolved from nonspecific cortisol suppression toward precision-oriented molecular interventions that target adrenal steroidogenesis, pituitary receptor signaling, and tumor biology itself. For endocrine speciali

Introduction Cushing’s syndrome is a rare endocrine disorder caused by chronic exposure to excess cortisol, leading to multisystem involvement and progressive morbidity if unrecognized. The insidious nature of symptom development and overlap with common metabolic and psychiatric conditions frequently delays diagnosis. Education during evaluation an

This guideline update summarizes the 2021 Pituitary Society consensus on the diagnosis and management of Cushing’s Disease (CD), drawing on evidence published between 2015 and 2021. Diagnostic Refinements and Screening The diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome (CS) remains challenging due to its insidious presentation. Specialists should use one or more

Introduction The vascular endothelium is a dynamic, multifunctional organ that actively regulates myocardial structure, metabolism, and performance (1). In cardiac disease, endothelial dysfunction frequently precedes overt structural abnormalities and plays a critical role in determining disease severity, progression, and outcomes (1). Smoking is a

Introduction Chronic low-grade systemic inflammation has emerged as a central biological mechanism linking cardiovascular, metabolic, renal, and respiratory diseases (1). Unlike acute inflammation, which is protective and self-limiting, chronic inflammation persists silently, progressively driving tissue damage and functional decline across organ s

Introduction Hypoparathyroidism is an uncommon endocrine disorder characterised by hypocalcaemia and hyperphosphatemia due to deficient or absent parathyroid hormone (PTH) (1). The most common cause is iatrogenic injury or removal of the parathyroid glands during neck surgery, particularly thyroidectomy (1). Early recognition is essential, as untre

Introduction Hypoparathyroidism is a rare endocrine disorder defined by hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, and absent or inappropriately low parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels (1). It remains unique among endocrine deficiencies because treatment traditionally does not involve routine replacement of the missing hormone (1). Postsurgical hypoparathyroidi